1. Name Discrimination.
Minorities are torn between celebrating their culture by giving their children ethnic names, or helping them assimilate into society with a name that doesn’t stand out. For example, to increase their marketability and avoid discrimination, many Jews in the USA have changed their names to sound more “American” (Stein to Stone, etc.).
Since the 1960s, American blacks have chosen increasingly distinctive names for their kids. This wasn’t always the case: 100 years ago, you’d have a very tough time identifying a ‘black’ name from a ‘white’ name. You probably couldn’t do it at all. Now, some names are exclusively associated with blacks (DeShawn, Shanice) or whites (Cody, Caitlin).
So far, so good. Names are just words we use to identify ourselves, right?
Maybe not. Two studies from the National Bureau of Economic Research in Cambridge yield mixed results on whether a black-sounding name is an economic burden. One study of 16 million births in California from 1960-2000 found no link between someone’s name and their later success in life. The second study suggested black-sounding names are a barrier to getting hired, and much less likely to get a resume callback.
In 2008, Marianne Bertrand at the University of Chicago and Sendhil Mullainathan of MIT replicated the results of the second study. Their paper “Are Emily and Greg More Employable Than Lakisha and Jamal?” describes how they took 500 resumes from online job boards, evaluated them for marketable factors like education and experience, and replaced the real names with stereotypical ” white” or “black” names. They made no other changes, and sent the resumes to 1,300 job advertisements placed in the Boston Globe and Chicago Tribune.
Third rail, dead ahead!
“White” names received one callback for every 10 resumes sent out, while “black” names received one callback for every 15 resumes sent out. “Carries” and “Kristens” had a 13% callback rate, while “Aisha”, “Keisha” and “Tamika” had respective callback rates of 2.2%, 3.8% and 5.4%. Having a high-powered resume unfairly rewarded whites over blacks as well. Resumes with more skills and experience upped white-name callbacks 30%, but a better resume only benefited black-name resumes by 9%. Even “equal opportunity employers” showed this bias, so Bertrand and Mullainathan now recommend companies shouldn’t look at names when first evaluating a resume.
2. Linguicism.
Coined in the 1980s, linguicism is a form of prejudice that makes uninformed judgments about someone’s wealth, social status, education, character, and other traits solely based on language skills. This discrimination also includes bias against people’s accents, vocabulary, diction, and ability to use one language instead of another (e.g. speaking English in parts of Quebec or Japanese in Korea). It can be murder in a job interview or the dating scene, where verbal acuity is at a premium.
For example, people in the American South have long suffered a stereotype of low intelligence based on nothing more than accents featuring pronounced drawls and slower cadence. Britons speaking with Cockney accents are assumed to be hopelessly (and unfairly) lower class. In contrast, a British accent in the USA artificially increases someone’s perceived intelligence, and many Americans putting on airs do so by first adopting an English accent (which might explain why Madonna no longer sounds like she’s from Detroit).
Note that none of these instances mention anything about content. What is being said is willfully ignored so style can win over substance. Linguicism is often subconscious because there are no social taboos against it, primarily because people believe control of one’s speech is voluntary. As a result, many people feel justified to draw inferences about a person’s education based on their language proficiency, which is, after all, taught and tested in schools.
The most concrete examples of linguicism are in the workplace, and usually impact immigrants the hardest. Linguicism occurs if management refuses to hire or otherwise treats individuals differently in their employment because of their native language or other characteristics of speech. Common examples of occupational language discrimination include single-language policies, unfair accent preferences, or lost merit increases due to vague descriptions of ‘poor communications skills’ (especially when the job doesn’t require fluency in that language).
In the United States, Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 protects individuals from discrimination based upon national origin and race, and some courts have ruled that discrimination based on language is a form of national origin discrimination. However, this area of the law is still developing, and varies from state to state.
For example, people in the American South have long suffered a stereotype of low intelligence based on nothing more than accents featuring pronounced drawls and slower cadence. Britons speaking with Cockney accents are assumed to be hopelessly (and unfairly) lower class. In contrast, a British accent in the USA artificially increases someone’s perceived intelligence, and many Americans putting on airs do so by first adopting an English accent (which might explain why Madonna no longer sounds like she’s from Detroit).
Note that none of these instances mention anything about content. What is being said is willfully ignored so style can win over substance. Linguicism is often subconscious because there are no social taboos against it, primarily because people believe control of one’s speech is voluntary. As a result, many people feel justified to draw inferences about a person’s education based on their language proficiency, which is, after all, taught and tested in schools.
The most concrete examples of linguicism are in the workplace, and usually impact immigrants the hardest. Linguicism occurs if management refuses to hire or otherwise treats individuals differently in their employment because of their native language or other characteristics of speech. Common examples of occupational language discrimination include single-language policies, unfair accent preferences, or lost merit increases due to vague descriptions of ‘poor communications skills’ (especially when the job doesn’t require fluency in that language).
In the United States, Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 protects individuals from discrimination based upon national origin and race, and some courts have ruled that discrimination based on language is a form of national origin discrimination. However, this area of the law is still developing, and varies from state to state.
3. Colorism.
We’re not talking black vs. white here (too straightforward), but lighter vs. darker complexions in the same race or nationality.
For example, in 2007, Vanderbilt law and economics professor Joni Hersch analyzed a 2003 government survey of 2,084 legal immigrants to the USA. She found that immigrants with lighter skin earned 8-15% percent more than similar immigrants with much darker skin. The results held even after accounting for English proficiency, education, race, and country of origin.
The survey used an 11-point scale for measuring skin tone coloration, with 0 for an absence of color and 10 for the darkest possible skin tone. Hersch concluded that on average, being one shade lighter is equivalent to an additional year of education. University of North Carolina economics professor William Darity Jr, said Hersch’s study replicated the results of his 2006 paper on skin tone and wages among American blacks. Neither study could verify whether the apparent employment bias was conscious or unconscious.
This preference also plays itself out in African American social dynamics, and whites are almost totally ignorant of it. Bear with me here – remember my note at the beginning of this list (seems ages ago, doesn’t it?). Here goes: There exists today a perceived social preference for lighter skin in the African American community, complete with bidirectional stereotypes and its own specialized lexicon. Complex interpersonal and communal relationships now exist based on a random genetic manifestation.
The sheer number and callousness of terms for different African American skin tones is alarming. They start from the innocuous “Light Bright” and “Mocha”, and quickly devolve to more derogatory terms as shades darken (‘high yellow’, ‘piss yellow’, ‘redbone’, ‘midnight’, ‘burnt’ and ‘crispy’). Darker women report they often receive backhanded compliments such as ‘you’re pretty for a dark girl’. What, “pretty” isn’t enough? They also refer to a ‘pecking order’ on the dating scene where light-skinned women have the upper hand.
And it gets more complicated in reverse. Light-skinned black men are often stereotyped as being more militant on race issues because they are overcompensating for yet another stereotype, which is that dark-skinned men are more masculine than “pretty boy” light skinned men. Light skinned women also complain they are unfairly stereotyped as having a superiority complex over darker women.
At this point in my research, my head exploded. Fortunately, Elnora Web, President of Laney College in Oakland, CA, sums it up nicely: “There is something related to color that we have bought as a society -across the board – that somehow associates excellence, associates promise, associates possibilities, associates competence, intelligence, and worthiness, with a lighter hue. And somehow the darker you are, the less likely you are to be of any asset, or let alone, any contribution or success in society”.
Well said. All I’ll say is that “something” is wrong, and the just-hate-one-son-of-a-bitch-at a-time motto is looking better all the time.
For example, in 2007, Vanderbilt law and economics professor Joni Hersch analyzed a 2003 government survey of 2,084 legal immigrants to the USA. She found that immigrants with lighter skin earned 8-15% percent more than similar immigrants with much darker skin. The results held even after accounting for English proficiency, education, race, and country of origin.
The survey used an 11-point scale for measuring skin tone coloration, with 0 for an absence of color and 10 for the darkest possible skin tone. Hersch concluded that on average, being one shade lighter is equivalent to an additional year of education. University of North Carolina economics professor William Darity Jr, said Hersch’s study replicated the results of his 2006 paper on skin tone and wages among American blacks. Neither study could verify whether the apparent employment bias was conscious or unconscious.
This preference also plays itself out in African American social dynamics, and whites are almost totally ignorant of it. Bear with me here – remember my note at the beginning of this list (seems ages ago, doesn’t it?). Here goes: There exists today a perceived social preference for lighter skin in the African American community, complete with bidirectional stereotypes and its own specialized lexicon. Complex interpersonal and communal relationships now exist based on a random genetic manifestation.
The sheer number and callousness of terms for different African American skin tones is alarming. They start from the innocuous “Light Bright” and “Mocha”, and quickly devolve to more derogatory terms as shades darken (‘high yellow’, ‘piss yellow’, ‘redbone’, ‘midnight’, ‘burnt’ and ‘crispy’). Darker women report they often receive backhanded compliments such as ‘you’re pretty for a dark girl’. What, “pretty” isn’t enough? They also refer to a ‘pecking order’ on the dating scene where light-skinned women have the upper hand.
And it gets more complicated in reverse. Light-skinned black men are often stereotyped as being more militant on race issues because they are overcompensating for yet another stereotype, which is that dark-skinned men are more masculine than “pretty boy” light skinned men. Light skinned women also complain they are unfairly stereotyped as having a superiority complex over darker women.
At this point in my research, my head exploded. Fortunately, Elnora Web, President of Laney College in Oakland, CA, sums it up nicely: “There is something related to color that we have bought as a society -across the board – that somehow associates excellence, associates promise, associates possibilities, associates competence, intelligence, and worthiness, with a lighter hue. And somehow the darker you are, the less likely you are to be of any asset, or let alone, any contribution or success in society”.
Well said. All I’ll say is that “something” is wrong, and the just-hate-one-son-of-a-bitch-at a-time motto is looking better all the time.
4. Ageism.
Western society’s attitude towards aging is predominantly negative and juvenile. Just being “old” is perceived as a handicap that turns people off. Why?
Well, conventional wisdom (wrongly) dictates a person’s energy and talent (and thus, their value to society) peaks during their 20’s and 30’s. Anyone older than that is considered “over the hill” and “past their prime”. Some people even consider seniors no longer “regular adults”, since they have outlived their usefulness.
Those misconceptions result in unfair stereotypes about the actions and characteristics of the elderly. For example, when seniors are unsure of something, we suspect they are feeble or senile. When they don’t hear something we say, they are accused of not understanding us, instead of having trouble hearing. When they get angry, they’re called “cranky”, even though that’s diagnosing a chronic personality trait from a temporary mood.
As a result of these stereotypes, many people discriminate against seniors without stopping to think about it. Even though it’s for comedic effect, TV and radio constantly reinforce the image of seniors as dependent, lazy, and nasty people clueless to their surroundings. Seniors living on their own are thought to be endangering themselves, and get encouraged to further segregate themselves into retirement communities “for their own good”.
Worst, however, is the job market. Even if they can find work, studies show elderly people in the workplace are less appreciated by management and peers. Seniors are often forced to retire, due to “disproportional experience”, which ageism advocates say is a corporate ploy to replace them with cheaper workers and prevent (perceived) increases in healthcare costs.
And we’re gonna be them someday.
Well, conventional wisdom (wrongly) dictates a person’s energy and talent (and thus, their value to society) peaks during their 20’s and 30’s. Anyone older than that is considered “over the hill” and “past their prime”. Some people even consider seniors no longer “regular adults”, since they have outlived their usefulness.
Those misconceptions result in unfair stereotypes about the actions and characteristics of the elderly. For example, when seniors are unsure of something, we suspect they are feeble or senile. When they don’t hear something we say, they are accused of not understanding us, instead of having trouble hearing. When they get angry, they’re called “cranky”, even though that’s diagnosing a chronic personality trait from a temporary mood.
As a result of these stereotypes, many people discriminate against seniors without stopping to think about it. Even though it’s for comedic effect, TV and radio constantly reinforce the image of seniors as dependent, lazy, and nasty people clueless to their surroundings. Seniors living on their own are thought to be endangering themselves, and get encouraged to further segregate themselves into retirement communities “for their own good”.
Worst, however, is the job market. Even if they can find work, studies show elderly people in the workplace are less appreciated by management and peers. Seniors are often forced to retire, due to “disproportional experience”, which ageism advocates say is a corporate ploy to replace them with cheaper workers and prevent (perceived) increases in healthcare costs.
And we’re gonna be them someday.
5. Heightism.
Any American male under 5 ft. 8 in.— average US height—is a victim of discrimination, according to Case Western sociologist Saul Feldman. He notes bias against short men is so long-running and pervasive that no one notices it—except the short man himself. The point is quickly illustrated in language: instead of the neutral “What is your height?” people ask “How tall are you?”
In romance, height is a deal breaker. A woman’s ideal lover is never short, dark and handsome, and both sexes believe the male should be taller than the female. Thus, while the tall man has all of womankind to choose from, the short man may only pursue relationships with smaller women. Fertility clinics even have height requirements barring donations from men 5′ 5″ and under.
This is where it gets cruel. To illustrate the point, American news program Dateline NBC asked a group of single women to view a lineup of men consisting of different heights. Dateline then gave the women fictional descriptions of each man as they viewed the lineup, and asked if they would date that candidate. The best looking man, by all accounts, was 5′ 5″, and he was never picked despite repeated trials. Even when a single mother was told this man was ‘independently wealthy, loves kids, and enjoys cooking” she rejected him. When confronted with the truth, the women were shocked and a little embarrassed at how ‘shallow we all were’.
Business has its share of successful short men, but it’s far from a level playing field. A University of Pittsburgh survey shows that graduates 6′ 2″ and over received average starting salaries 12.4% higher than those under 6″. In another study, 140 corporate recruiters were asked to make a hypothetical choice between two equally qualified applicants, one 6′ 1″, the other 5′ 5″. Nearly three-quarters hired the tall man; only 1% chose the short one. Sometimes the bias is comical: in 2006, in Hunan Province (China), a university graduate was refused a civil service job because he was one centimeter shorter than the required height – for a clerical position.
Yet even when he succeeds or excels—despite the odds against him—the short man is accused of being a “little Napoleon”, pathetically overcompensating for his short stature. Thus, society’s rules have his successes mock him. Should he dare complain, he’s just an angry little man; yet another stereotype.
Options are limited, so most shorter men just shake their heads and get on with the business of life. Some wear lifts in their shoes to get an additional 2-3″ taller. The truly obsessed can go for Symmetric Leg Lengthening surgery, an agonizing procedure where both shins and femurs are broken. It’s 10 out of 10 on the pain scale, and doctors prescribe minimal pain management. Metal pins are inserted between the severed bones as they heal, and the recovery process takes over a year. At best, the patient will ‘grow’ 3 or 4 inches in height.
Just so they can be treated like everybody else.
In romance, height is a deal breaker. A woman’s ideal lover is never short, dark and handsome, and both sexes believe the male should be taller than the female. Thus, while the tall man has all of womankind to choose from, the short man may only pursue relationships with smaller women. Fertility clinics even have height requirements barring donations from men 5′ 5″ and under.
This is where it gets cruel. To illustrate the point, American news program Dateline NBC asked a group of single women to view a lineup of men consisting of different heights. Dateline then gave the women fictional descriptions of each man as they viewed the lineup, and asked if they would date that candidate. The best looking man, by all accounts, was 5′ 5″, and he was never picked despite repeated trials. Even when a single mother was told this man was ‘independently wealthy, loves kids, and enjoys cooking” she rejected him. When confronted with the truth, the women were shocked and a little embarrassed at how ‘shallow we all were’.
Business has its share of successful short men, but it’s far from a level playing field. A University of Pittsburgh survey shows that graduates 6′ 2″ and over received average starting salaries 12.4% higher than those under 6″. In another study, 140 corporate recruiters were asked to make a hypothetical choice between two equally qualified applicants, one 6′ 1″, the other 5′ 5″. Nearly three-quarters hired the tall man; only 1% chose the short one. Sometimes the bias is comical: in 2006, in Hunan Province (China), a university graduate was refused a civil service job because he was one centimeter shorter than the required height – for a clerical position.
Yet even when he succeeds or excels—despite the odds against him—the short man is accused of being a “little Napoleon”, pathetically overcompensating for his short stature. Thus, society’s rules have his successes mock him. Should he dare complain, he’s just an angry little man; yet another stereotype.
Options are limited, so most shorter men just shake their heads and get on with the business of life. Some wear lifts in their shoes to get an additional 2-3″ taller. The truly obsessed can go for Symmetric Leg Lengthening surgery, an agonizing procedure where both shins and femurs are broken. It’s 10 out of 10 on the pain scale, and doctors prescribe minimal pain management. Metal pins are inserted between the severed bones as they heal, and the recovery process takes over a year. At best, the patient will ‘grow’ 3 or 4 inches in height.
Just so they can be treated like everybody else.
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